Organizational Behavior Theories Taxonomy Free Essays

Running Head: Taxonomy Taxonomy Anonymous Grand Canyon University Management 415 March 22, 2010 Management Theory Taxonomy Leadership qualities dated back to (315-311 BC) – Seleukos conquers and unites Roman and Persian empire by leading his troops ethically, with respect for diversity, social responsibility and organizational culture. Management Foundation- Scientific management 1. Frederick W. We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Behavior Theories Taxonomy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Taylor (1911) – Time study: to analyze motional task and develop the most efficient ways to perform them. Reduce job to basic physical motions. Principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the company and maximum prosperity for the employee. 2. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth – Motion studies to observe motions workers make to simplify job. 3. Henri Fayol (1916) – Administrative Principles – believed management could be taught †¢ Foresight – complete plan of action for the future †¢ Organization – resources to complete plan †¢ Command – lead, select and evaluate workers Coordination – diversity, information, solve problems †¢ Control – Ensure plan works and correct any negative action Bureaucratic Organization Max Weber – Organization is logic, orderly and has legitimate authority. †¢ Impersonal †¢ Career managers †¢ Clear division of labor †¢ Promotion based on merit †¢ Formal hierarchy of authority †¢ Written rules and standard procedures Behavior al Management Approaches Mary Parker Follett – Organization is community †¢ Every employee is an owner and has collective responsibility and input. The Hawthorne Studies (1924) – Scientific Management †¢ Determine economic incentives and physical conditions of the workplace affect the output of workers. †¢ Hawthorne Effect – Tendency or personas singled out for special attention to perform as expected. †¢ Human Relations movement (1050-1960) Managers using good human relations will achieve productivity Abraham Maslow – Maslow’s Theory of human needs – Managers who help people satisfy deprived needs at work will achieve productivity: †¢ Self-actualization †¢ Esteem †¢ Social †¢ Safety Physiological Douglas McGregor – McGregor’s theory X and Theory Y †¢ X – Assumes people dislike work, lack ambition, act irresponsibly and prefer to be led. †¢ Y – Assumes people are willing to work, like responsibility, and are self directed and creative. †¢ Self-fulfilling prophecy – occurs when a person acts in ways that confirm another’s expectations. Chris Argyris – Theory of Adult Personality – Managers who treat people positively and as responsible adults will achieve the highest productivity. Modern Management Foundations Manage the organization from a broader perspective, coordinate central administration with its programs, engineering with manufacturing, supervisors with workers. Quantitative Analysis and Tools – mathematical forecasting of future projection †¢ Management science – systematically analyzed, appropriate mathematical models and computations are applied and optimum solution is identified. †¢ Operations research – testing and tweaking †¢ Operation management – Study of how organizations produce goods and services Organizations as systems System – Collection of interrelated parts working together for purpose †¢ Subsystems – Smaller component of larger system †¢ Open system – Interacts with the environment and transforms resource input into outputs. Contingency thinking – Match management practices with situational demands Quality Management †¢ Total quality management – Manage with organization-wi de commitment to continuous improvement, product quality, and customer needs †¢ Continuous improvement – Always searching for new ways †¢ ISO Certificate – Indicates conformance with a rigorous set of international quality standards Knowledge Management and Organizational Learning †¢ Use intellectual capital for competitive advantage †¢ Learning Organization – continuously changes and improves using the lessons of experience. The global economy our country’s market is engaged with requires that organization’s theories of management account for and help interpret the rapidly changing nature of today’s organizational environments. How to cite Organizational Behavior Theories Taxonomy, Papers

Governance and Leadership Management

Question: Discuss about theGovernance and Leadership Management. Answer: Description and Evaluation of Project Governance Structure of Telstra Telstra has been a leader in technology for the better part of the decade. Its pioneer work in the field of communication has been revolutionizing. It has made its mark by making many breakthroughs in technology (Telstra.com 2016). Contribution of Telstra to the Australian cloud services and telecommunications has been the result of sound project governance structure of the company. Detailed description of the structure of governance of Telstra is discussed below: Board of Directors Telstra has selected its Board members very sensibly over the years that has made this company grow better and at a faster rate than its competitors in Australia. As of now Telstra has 12 core Board members out which 11 are core members and one director who contribute in the decision making of the company in every aspect of business. Telstra has hired its CEO who has an experience of more than 25 years. The CEO has expertise in finance, strategy development and business of telecommunication products with a worldwide view.Telstra has also incorporated Business Improvement and Support unit for constant innovation in the business ideas. BIS was created by the company some time ago when there was a shakeup in the structure of Telstra and the company was suffering from some inter-company issues around the globe (Telstra.com 2016). But due to establishment of this unit Telstra gained in its productivity and has acquired tools and other programs that assists in simplification of the busines s procedure. The company has also changed its international business composition to harvest the benefits of evolving business needs in the overseas market. The Board has recognized the expertise and experience of members and has designated the suitable portfolio to the concerned members. Telstra has been working on the three pillars of business strategy that is building growth, derive value from the central part of the team and advance customer support (Van den Berghe 2012). Constant review is done by the boards to keep track of the developments and to focus on business ideas. Telstra has a dynamic way of mixing its membership with diversified field of execution for appropriate balance in the management. The Board consists of three standing committees that are Nominating Committee, Remunerating Committee and Risk Audit Committee (Chhaochharia, Kumar and Niessen-Ruenzi 2012). The Board is responsible and is gender neutral as it has included 40% representatives of female gender among its non-executive members. Project and Portfolio Management Telstra is very keen in deployment of Project Engagement structure that ranges to the complete life-cycle of the project. This framework spans from scope of the project, definition of the project to its delivery. To monitor this cycle of project Telstra has employed Project Managers who are competent in managing complex and diverse projects for the implementation of transformation and transition of assignments. Project Office of Management sees to the fact that projects are completed and delivered on time and with utmost precision (Belloc 2012). Project Managers are well versed to follow the guidelines of project execution such as PRINCE2,PMBoK and PMI. They also provide the risk management techniques to ensure the integration of network solutions. Experienced, skilled and expert project managers steer the project through business modules. They are experts in end-to-end delivery of projects with additional stress given to the development of requirements, management of design, quoting and management of implementation (Karolyi 2012). Project and portfolio management is done following certain steps by the managers of Telstra which are as follows: Governance: This phase defines the project structure, does identification of specific resources and their responsibilities and roles. Change in management of organization: Stakeholders are notified about the alteration made in the project. Management of stakeholders: Notification of changes in roles and timeframes in the implementation of the project to the concerned shareholders. Management if risks and issues:This phase comprises of identification, monitoring, mitigation and quantification of risks involved in the project. Management of quality: Definition and compliance with the expectations of the customers. Reporting of status: Consistent updating the status of project including risks involved, budget and attaining milestones. Some other methods and characteristics of Project and Portfolio Management includes the following aspects: Planning Execution and control Deployment and Integration Testing and certification Knowledge management Change Management Release and deployment management Service operation Event Management Security Management Service reporting and improvement Linking of Corporate Strategies and Projects Telstra has grown with rapid pace in Australia and globally. It has laid much emphasis in expansion and linking corporate strategies in execution of its projects. In pursuance of innovation and new ideas to cater to the needs of the customer to thrive in the changing technological world (Michelon, G. and Parbonetti 2012). There are three strategies which are mainly followed by Telstra to link its projects with main business ideas. There strategies are discussed below: Improvement of Customer Support:The policy of customer support is very necessary for Telstra as it is a market driven company, responses and feedback of the customers become the backbone of companys growth. More the customers will be satisfied with the services of Telstra more they will recommend it to others. In this strategy, key areas where customers find problems is targeted by proper planning for the ease of access to the customers. Employees pay great emphasis in notifying the customers about new technologies that are innovated (Armstrong, Balakrishnan and Cohen 2012). Telstra is known for providing customized merchandise as per the requirements of the customers. These include digital options, enhancement in stores and mobile. Derivation of values from the center: Customers of Telstra have much reliance on the services and products of Telstra. Seeing the popularity and sales of its products Telstra has decided to expand its networks by investing in it to provide its customers the best experience available.Core network of Telstra also supports the communication of other government organizations of Australia. Superiority of network has provided a large number of users of mobile network (Brammer, Jackson and Matten 2012). New data plans and other high value services has generated a substantial revenue for Telstra. Network Services and Applications:Portfolio of NAS provides, enterprises and business connections with government organizations in Australia and software contracts with security services and service solutions. With expansion of services, Telstra has started working in collaboration with global companies such as IBM, Cisco, Amazon Web Services and VMware (Agrawal 2012). Governance of Individual Projects Telstra Company has given more emphasis on the development of software technologies by taking one project as an individual entity. This method of project governance has proved very beneficial to the company. It provides liberty to the employees to focus completely on one problem at a time. Moreover, it enhances the efficiency of the workers as all the details of the project are segregated and a proper time window is available to complete the project. The employees find the proper framework to complete the project with all its entities and features integrated (Cuat, Gine and Guadalupe 2012). Requirement analysis is done in the beginning, after that stakeholders inputs are taken for the project to construct a proper framework, then implementation strategy is made, a time limitation is set to complete the project, cost analysis is done and risk analysis is also done and other methods are also applied during the development of the project. Telstra has governed some projects in the recent past which are: Telstra Ventures:It is a corporate venture capital group founded by Telstra. This venture has invested in new and innovative technologies that have emerged recently and are going to be in market in the near future. Telstra has invested in high growth opportunities that will yield high returns to the company. Additionally, Telstra has its rich assets that allows the company to leverage these kind of investment ventures (Hochberg 2012). Globecast Australia: Telstra has taken over thiscompany recently to construct a deeper base in the media and communication services for broadcasting in foreign countries as well. Knowing well about the Globecast Australia that it has its reach in delivering particular media services and has roots in local as well as international media business Telstra made this move to acquire the company (Morellec, Nikolov and Schrhoff 2012). This has provided Telstra an edge over its competitors in the media business making it the telecommunication giant of Australia. Leadership With the history of over 14 years, Telstra has experienced the work of six CEOs who have greatly contributed in the development of the company in every aspect. All the CEOs were very optimistic, active and had positive frame of mind with a vision to achieve high goals for the company. As media and telecommunication industry has underwent drastic changes in recent years and to cope up with the change and grow at the same time was not an easy task. But management of Telstra was always in good hands through the journey of the company (Hazarika, Karpoff and Nahata, 2012). A top management official who can be the CEO or any other member of the board has to balance the stakes between the investment made for technological advancement of the company and the interest of the stakeholders and shareholders who are concerned with the profits and dividends that the company will make. A leader should also be aware of the opportunities and possibilities to maximize the benefits of the efforts made b y the management and its employees. As in the case of Telstra, the innovative technology of networking like fiber technology and high quality routers has been used in such a way that the consumers are more than happy by the services (Walls, Berrone and Phan 2012). So the foresight is a very important trait of character a leader should possess and Telstra has been lucky in that context. Moreover, having technical skills, professional skills, integrity and personal values are some of the innate qualities that have been demonstrated by the leaders of Telstra in the past. Relationship with Stakeholders In the governance structure of Telstra, the communication and interaction with stakeholders is a vital point that needs consideration. For growth and development and supporting the framework of business, relationship with stakeholders and shareholders is a key point in delivering services as per the strategy.Telstra follows a two-way mode of conveying information to its investors and stakeholders about the strategies of the company. In this mode of information exchange, the management not only conveys important information such as legal obligations and market disclosures but also listens to, understands and give priority to the stakeholders perspectives and opinions. Stakeholders feedback is taken into consideration and execution of ideas is done as quickly as possible (Chen, Lu and Sougiannis 2012). There are various initiatives to involve shareholders in active decision making and convening business ideas so that they feel as a participant in companys ventures. Some of these initia tives are discussed as follows: Briefing of Retail Shareholders information: In Annual General Meetings these briefings are done in the presence of CFOs and CEOs. This is done to increase the transparency among retail shareholders and to give them insight of the upcoming plans of the company. Encourage interrogation in advance of the AGM: Telstra requests the shareholders to prepare a list of queries and the topic of discussions that needs to be dealt with in the AGM meeting. This gives the management an idea and the head start about the rising concerns that are inquisitive among its shareholders. Briefing of investors:Telstra provides its investors with the briefs of the ongoing and upcoming projects that are to be developed by the company. This is important for the investors as they should know that their money is being invested in a proper way and is worth the effort. They also get the idea of the market trends so that they can invest more in the projects that are yet to start (Hermalin and Weisbach 2012). Electronic Communication: In the developing technological age, the stakeholders are provided with official email ids and other user authentication objects so that they can easily log in the companys portal and see by themselves what the company is intending to do. Online notifications of each and every details of the company gives an assurance to the stakeholders about the whereabouts of the companys plans (Jo and Harjoto 2012). Webcasting Telstras events: to discuss the AGM, financial reports and other such activities of the company, webcasting is done. This provides a larger platform for discussion and is a strong step towards stakeholders relationship with the company. Suggestions in Governance of Telstra As it can be established from the above discussion, Telstra has quite concrete Project and Portfolio Management system which has benefited the company in many ways. Its development in the recent past is the proof of its efficient structure of governance. But still, there is a room of improvement in the framework of Telstras governance. It can be observed that the company lacks proper advertisement mechanism to reach maximum number of customers through media. Being a popular company, it ignores the fact that it needs to advertise its products and services in a more dynamic and exhaustive way so that the customers can feel inquisitive to experience the services. Telstra can also improve and diversify their business base by increasing the number of Board members. This will enhance the area of expertise at the top level of management. This will incorporate personnel of diverse viewpoints who understand business in different ways. Their input will give a deep insight to expand the domain of the company exponentially. Since Telstra is a media and telecommunication based company, it should also lay emphasis on the data security of the customers on the network and also during data transmission. With advancement of technology, data security and risks involved with it is of prior importance. References: Aebi, V., Sabato, G. and Schmid, M., 2012. Risk management, corporate governance, and bank performance in the financial crisis.Journal of Banking Finance,36(12), pp.3213-3226. Agrawal, A.K., 2012. Corporate governance objectives of labor union shareholders: Evidence from proxy voting.Review of Financial Studies,25(1), pp.187-226. Armstrong, C.S., Balakrishnan, K. and Cohen, D., 2012. Corporate governance and the information environment: Evidence from state antitakeover laws.Journal of Accounting and Economics,53(1), pp.185-204. Belloc, F., 2012. Corporate governance and innovation: A survey.Journal of Economic Surveys,26(5), pp.835-864. Brammer, S., Jackson, G. and Matten, D., 2012. Corporate social responsibility and institutional theory: New perspectives on private governance.Socio-Economic Review,10(1), pp.3-28. Chen, C.X., Lu, H. and Sougiannis, T., 2012. The agency problem, corporate governance, and the asymmetrical behavior of selling, general, and administrative costs.Contemporary Accounting Research,29(1), pp.252-282. Chhaochharia, V., Kumar, A. and Niessen-Ruenzi, A., 2012. Local investors and corporate governance.Journal of Accounting and Economics,54(1), pp.42-67. Cuat, V., Gine, M. and Guadalupe, M., 2012. The vote is cast: The effect of corporate governance on shareholder value.The Journal of Finance,67(5), pp.1943-1977. Hazarika, S., Karpoff, J.M. and Nahata, R., 2012. Internal corporate governance, CEO turnover, and earnings management.Journal of Financial Economics,104(1), pp.44-69. Hermalin, B.E. and Weisbach, M.S., 2012. Information disclosure and corporate governance.The Journal of Finance,67(1), pp.195-233. Hochberg, Y.V., 2012. Venture capital and corporate governance in the newly public firm.Review of Finance,16(2), pp.429-480. Jo, H. and Harjoto, M.A., 2012. The causal effect of corporate governance on corporate social responsibility.Journal of business ethics,106(1), pp.53-72. Karolyi, G.A., 2012. Corporate governance, agency problems and international cross-listings: A defense of the bonding hypothesis.Emerging Markets Review,13(4), pp.516-547. Michelon, G. and Parbonetti, A., 2012. The effect of corporate governance on sustainability disclosure.Journal of Management Governance,16(3), pp.477-509. Morellec, E., Nikolov, B. and Schrhoff, N., 2012. Corporate governance and capital structure dynamics.The Journal of Finance,67(3), pp.803-848. Nini, G., Smith, D.C. and Sufi, A., 2012. Creditor control rights, corporate governance, and firm value.Review of Financial Studies,25(6), pp.1713-1761. Telstra.com, 2016.www.telstra.com.au. [online] www.telstra.com.au. Available at: https://www.telstra.com.au [Accessed 29 Sep. 2016]. Van den Berghe, L., 2012.International standardisation of good corporate governance: best practices for the board of directors. Springer Science Business Media. Walls, J.L., Berrone, P. and Phan, P.H., 2012. Corporate governance and environmental performance: is there really a link?.Strategic Management Journal,33(8), pp.885-913. Wintoki, M.B., Linck, J.S. and Netter, J.M., 2012. Endogeneity and the dynamics of internal corporate governance.Journal of Financial Economics,105(3), pp.581-606.

Dentralization Pros and Cons Essay Example For Students

Dentralization Pros and Cons Essay When it comes to decentralization, there are many pros and cons. Decentralization can be beneficial in the fact that it allows for experts to take control of specific functions of an organization and easily convey information back and forth. It also allows for direct contact and relationships with managers. Decentralization also allows managers to participate in planning. Unfortunately, there are disadvantages of decentralization as well. Some managers will find that they have too much work to do and other will have too little. It will also become difficult to have managers take on different tasks or projects if needed because of overspecialization. Also, if one manager leaves, there will not be anyone to pick up his place with quite the same knowledge and expertise. Centralization is another method which has its pros and cons. A positive aspect is the fact that the corporate decision maker has full control over the organization and the decisions that the organization must follow. The organization may also benefit from the fact that all information is reported to the corporate decision maker; he or she listens to all comments and concerns and is able to infer from all information received. There are disadvantages to centralization as well. The larger an organization becomes, the more information that one manager has to comprehend and consider; eventually he/she will need help. Tasks will have to be divided or else the organization will become disorganized and at times, seem chaotic. What happens if the manger is away for whatever reason? Timely corporate decisions are impossible when no one is around to make them. Whether an organization chooses centralization or decentralization is completely a matter or choice. One system may work better than the other depending on the situation or the type of organization. It is an important choice and should be carefully and wisely considered.

Towards a Critical Assessment of the Discipline of Social Psychology

A wealth of literature points to the fact that the term ‘social psychology’ was first conceptualized in the 1860s, but the fundamental issues surrounding the discipline have progressed over a much longer period of time (Jahoda, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Towards a Critical Assessment of the Discipline of Social Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This not withstanding, the discipline has over the years courted both interest and controversy, prompting scholars and researchers to assume a deep interest in attempting to examine its most basic tenets as well as its discourse (Greenwood, 2004). This paper specifically aims to examine the discipline of social psychology, including offering a working definition of the discipline, discussing how it differs from other related disciplines, and, finally, explaining the role of research in social psychology. Social psychology may be defined a s the scientific discipline that attempts to understand and explain how individuals think about, feel about, relate to, and influence each other within the social environment, and how a myriad of social factors found within the environment influences our situations, including our behavior (Greenwood, 2004). Specifically, the discipline uses scientific techniques to understand and explain a wide range of social dimensions, including cognition, group behavior, emotion, social perception, leadership characteristics, conformity, social beliefs and prejudice, among others (Potter Wetherell, 2005). In its most basic nature, social psychology attempts to understand our thinking, influence, and relationships by looking for answers to questions that have over the years’ intrigued mankind (Myers, 2010). Social psychology differs from other related disciplines in diverse yet subtle ways. It is imperative to mention some of the related disciplines, which includes sociology, personality psychology, clinical psychology, general psychology, abnormal psychology, and cognitive psychology, among others. According to Myers (2010), social psychology is at the core of both psychology and sociology disciplines. While sociology interests itself with the study of individuals in groups and societies, social psychology is deeply interested in understanding individuals, not mentioning that it uses more experimentation than sociology. Although sociology is also interested in assessing and understanding social behavior and influences, its focus is broad-based and its scope is not necessarily interested in attempting to understand how individuals relate to, and influences one another (Greenwood, 2004). On the contrary, attempting to assess and understand how individuals think about, feel about, relate to, and influence each other is a core critical area in social psychology.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Consequently, it can be argued that while both social psychology and sociology study somewhat congruent topics in individual, group and social life, they inarguably look at these topics using totally different lens and from totally different perspectives In comparing personality psychology with social psychology, Myers (2010) notes that while the former focuses more on individual differences and less on how individuals view and affect one another, the latter is intrinsically focused on attempting to understand how people relate to, and affect one another within the social environment. Eliasz et al (2005) argues that although there exist an overlap between social and personality psychology, the former to a larger extent deals with issues of social cognition, prejudice and stereotyping, self and social identity, emotion, aggression, and social behavior, while the latter to a larger extent deals with issues of identity, motivation, and power. Moving on, clinica l psychology mainly focuses on the study, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of individual mental health disorders, while social psychology is chiefly concerned with assessing how an individual’s thoughts, emotions, and behavior are influenced by others around him, thus the difference (Zaka, 2007). As such, it can be argued that, while clinical psychologists aims to solve a passive problem, hence his role is reactive in nature, a social psychologist functions in a proactive trajectory by virtue of attempting to search for solutions to practical challenges affecting and influencing individuals as they interact with others. Abnormal psychology, the study and assessment of abnormal behavior and psychopathology, is therefore more closely linked to clinical psychology than to social psychology. The contention over what causes behavior facilitated the split that saw social psychology disengage from general psychology. While general psychology assumes a behaviorist perspective tha t suggests external stimuli influence individual behavior and denies any involvement of thoughts, feelings, and emotions in influencing behavior, social psychology, on the other hand, maintain an emphasis on the fundamental importance of thoughts and emotions in influencing behavior (Potter Wetherell, 2005). This contentious issue about causation of behavior has severed the marriage between the two fundamental fields of psychology, though they still remain closely related.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Towards a Critical Assessment of the Discipline of Social Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The role of research in social psychology can never be underestimated since the two goes hand in hand. Indeed, research in social psychology attempts to understand and explain thought, feelings, and behavior since we all behave differently based on the individuals we are relating to, and the circumstances of th e relationship or influence (Thomas, 2005). It is a well known fact that social psychologists work on theoretical challenges, and apply the knowledge learnt to practical problems affecting individuals within the social setup. To be able to function properly, they must carry out studies on a consistent basis aimed at discerning phenomena and social constructs, thus the importance of research. Additionally, it is imperative to note that social psychology is investigative in nature and, therefore, research comes in handy when dealing with issues in social cognition, attitudes, violence and aggression, personal behavior, prejudice and discrimination, self and social identity, and group behavior, among others. All in All, it can be concluded that although social psychology is still a young discipline, it has managed to secure a niche among other heavyweights within the broad field of psychology. Reference List Eliasz, A., Hampson, S.E., Raad, B. (2005). Advances in personality psycholog y. East Sussex: Psychology Press. Greenwood, J.D. (2004). What happened to the â€Å"social† in social psychology? Journal of Theory of Social Behavior, 34(1), 19-34. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Jahoda, G. (2007). A history of social psychology: From the eighteenth-century enlightenment to the Second World War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Myers, D. (2010). Social psychology, 10th Ed. New York: McGraw Hill.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Potter, J., Wetherell, M. (2005). Discourse social psychology: Beyond attitudes and behavior. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Thomas, S. (2005). Exploring the role of psychological research in social psychology. Web. Zaka, H. (2007). The difference between clinical and social psychology. Web. This essay on Towards a Critical Assessment of the Discipline of Social Psychology was written and submitted by user Guillermo Larson to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Low SAT Scores What Should You Do

Low SAT Scores What Should You Do SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If your scores on the SAT are on the lower side, you will benefit more from prep strategies that are targeted towards your specific situation. High and low scorers usually have different struggles and goals on the SAT, so the methods that work best for each of them will differ significantly. In this article, I'll cover the reasons why high and low SAT scorers should prepare differently and which strategies SAT low scorers should and shouldn't use to have the best chances of improving their scores. Why Should High and Low Scorers Prepare Differently for the SAT? It’s common for prep books and services to advocate a one-size-fits-all approach to preparing for the SAT.This strategy can be harmful because high and low scorers have distinctneeds. Students at different score levels should approach the test in different ways so that they end up with the best chances of improving their scores. High scorers are students who are consistently scoring 1800 or higher on SAT practice tests, and low scorers are students who are consistently scoring below 1500 on SAT practice tests. Students who are between these two scores may find advice for both scoring categories helpful depending on the types of mistakes they tend to make. High scorers usually make different types of mistakes than low scorers.Their problems are more likely to come from careless mistakes and rushing.The problems that lower scorers have might be a result of gaps in content knowledge or focusing too much on difficult questions and running out of time. It'smore challenging for high scorers to improve their scores. The closer you get to a perfect score, the more of a difference one or two incorrect answers will make. High scorers who hope to do even better will have to zero in on the minutia of test-taking, but low scorers will benefit more fromtaking a broader approach and attacking the test at a basic level.The goal for low scorers is to try and answer all the easy questions and not waste time on difficult questions that they’re less likely to answer correctly.The goal for high scorers is to answer every question regardless of difficulty level and avoid running out of time or rushing and making careless mistakes. Remember, these aren’t fixed categories, just suggestions based on yourstarting point.A low scorer can ultimately turn into a high scorer and should make changes in his or her testing strategies accordingly.In the rest of this article, I will go over the best strategies for students who are currently in the "low scorer" category on the SAT. As you journey through your own personal wormhole of self-improvement on the SAT, you might change your study strategy to account for higher scores! Strategies for Low SAT Scorers Your goal as a low scorer is to get the maximum amount of points in the least amount of time. This means that you will have to approach the test strategically and avoid wasting time on questions that won't help your scores. It's best to look at the test as a fast-paced game or competition - you're not striving for perfection at every stage of the process, you're just trying to get through it and snag as many points as possible in the limited time you have. Here are some of the best strategies for low scorers who are looking to improve their performance significantly. Understand Your Mistakes If you’re trying to improve low SAT scores,it’s really important that you know where you’re going wrong and what might be holding you back.As a low scorer, you’re more likely to have problems with the content on the test in terms of math concepts and grammar rules, but you might also be making mistakes as a result of careless errors or misunderstandings.Most errors fall into one of these four categories: Careless mistake:you should have known the answer, but you got the question wrong because you rushed or didn't read carefully. Time issue:you didn't make it to the question before your time for the section was up. Misunderstanding the question:the wording of the question confused you, so you interpreted it wrong and answered incorrectly or were forced to guess. Lack of content knowledge:you never learned the fundamental skills that you needed to answer the question (this happens most often in the Math section). It’s a good idea for you totake a practice test or two and categorize your mistakes.This way, you can start practicing targeted studying that’s directed towards fixing the specific problems you have on the test.Consult our article on understanding your mistakes (link in the title of this section!) to get a more complete overview of this process. I'll also give some more specific advice about how to address common mistakes that low scorers make in the next couple of sections. Prevent Time Issues: Skip Difficult Questions If you’re scoring relatively low on the SAT, getting stuck on difficult questions can hurt your score.It’s in your best interests to skip any questions that are especially challenging for you.The best strategy is just to skip questions that you don’t know at first glance so that you have enough time to get through the whole section. Make sure you have time to answer every single easy question so you don’t miss out on any points! You might be able to go back to difficult questions at the end if you still have time, but these questions should be your last priority.Leaving the most difficult questions blank won’t ruin your scores if you’re not aiming for perfection. In the Reading section, for example, you can technically skip twenty questions and still get a 600.You need to focus primarily on accuracy in your answers to questions that you understand better. As a general rule, skip a question if you find yourself spending more than 30 seconds on it. For more in depth pacing strategies, take a look at our advice on how to stop running out of time on SAT Reading and SAT Math. Skip it, just like this creepy child. Fill in Content Gaps As a low scorer, it's very important that you diagnose and repair any gaps in your knowledge that you notice through taking practice tests. Content gaps are a common issue on the Math section because some students may have forgotten mathematical concepts that they learned a while ago or didn't fully understand in class. Filling in these gaps in your knowledge can go a long way towards building your confidence on the test and raising your scores. To fix these types of issues, you might turn to SAT prep books, class notes, or your school textbooks for study materials. See our list of the best SAT prep books for some ideas on how you can brush up on your content knowledge in different subject areas. Once you have the appropriate background knowledge, you can start trying out your newfound skills on SAT practice questions that pertain to the topic that was causing you problems. Learn to Eliminate Question Misunderstandings Question misunderstandings are a common problem on the SAT for low scorers in particular. Since the wording of SAT questions is often weird and confusing, it's easy to mix up what the test is asking for and make a mistake. A good overall strategy for avoiding this is to write down what the question is asking in a simpler form that makes more sense to you. For math questions, you can also underline the value that you're being asked to find so that you don't get sidetracked in your calculations. For questions in the reading section where the wording is confusing, underlining the most important parts of the question can also be helpful. This will remind you of what you should be focusing on as you read relevant information in the passage and prevent you from choosing answers that deviate slightly from the question's main focus. You can also prevent yourself from falling victim to these types of mistakes just by doing more practice questions. The more comfortable you are with the format of the test, the less prone you will be to misinterpreting questions. Ha it's focusing on the piece of paper that says focus. Genius. But seriously, focusing on the most important parts of each question is the key to avoiding misunderstandings! Strategies Low Scorers Should Avoid Just like there are study strategies that are especially helpful for low scorers, there are some that are especiallyunhelpfulif you have low SAT scores.Make sure to avoid these common mistakes in how you approach the test. Focusing Too Much on Careless Mistakes As a low scorer, you may be making some careless mistakes, but it's likely that you have larger problems that need to be addressed first. High scorers need to devote time to fixing the problems in their testing strategy that cause careless mistakes because they are aiming for elite scores. Low scorers need to focus on deeper issues with time, content, and question misunderstandings before delving into the realm of careless mistakes. Many students also have a tendency to diagnose too many mistakes that they make on practice tests as just "careless" when the mistakes are actually part of a different problem with their understanding of the question or with time management. You may find that your careless mistakes as a low scorer will automatically decrease as you begin to fix other issues that you have with the test. After you've fully understood and fixed other types of mistakes, you may find that you've moved up into the high scorer category and can begin to zero in on smaller issues like careless errors that are only causing you to lose a few points here and there. Pressuring Yourself to Answer Every Question High scorers who are aiming to get perfect or close to perfect results on the SAT need to make sure that they answer every question. Low scorers, however, can damage their scores if they subscribe to this mindset. As I said earlier, even if you leave twenty questions blank on the Reading section (and get everything else right) you can still get a 600. This tells you that trying to answer every single question is not a productive strategy for low scorers. If you have it in your head that you need to answer all the questions in each section, this can make it more difficult for you to focus and cause greater test anxiety. This may ultimately lead to lower scores in the long run if you spend too much energy trying to figure out difficult questions and don't have enough time to grab all the easy points. There's no need to put this kind of pressure on yourself as a low scorer! Don't let yourself get to the point where this seems like a good idea. Conclusion Students with low SAT scoresshould use different strategies than high scorers to prepare for the SAT. You're more likely to make certain types of mistakes as a low scorer, and most of your energy should go towards fixing those problems. The best strategies for low scorers include: Understanding your mistakes Skipping difficult questions Filling in content gaps Avoiding question misunderstandings Low scorers should avoid strategies like focusing exclusively on careless errors or attempting to answer every question on the test. As your scores improve, you might end up reaching a level where these strategies are more relevant, but for now you should focus on the deeper issues you have with content and format on the SAT. What's Next? For more advice on improving your scores, read our articles on how to get a 600 on SAT Math, SAT Reading, and SAT Writing. You should also check out these fifteen quick tips for improving your overall scores on the SAT. Struggling with the SAT essay? Here are a bunch of different strategies for improving your score. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We have the industry's leading SAT prep program. Built by Harvard grads and SAT full scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so you get the most effective prep possible. Check out our 5-day free trial today:

Why Trial by Jury Should Be Retained Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Why Trial by Jury Should Be Retained - Essay Example It is though this confidence that citizens appreciate the independence and the important role played by the judicial system. Trial through a jury has been a long tradition in the justice system that it is considered as unique approach in the justice system in that it requires the use of ordinary citizens without prior legal training to hear evidence in a court of law, make sense of the conflicting facts and the application of legal rules to reach a final verdict about which all or the majority of jurors can agree. Thousands of cases are heard and determined by juries annually and prediction regarding the potential verdicts has a large influence on the decisions required to settle civil lawsuits and in offering and accepting plea bargains in most criminal cases. Jury trials have therefore an important role to play in the law. It is through these juries that psychologists can better perceive how individuals perceive, interpret and remember evidence and the various ways in which the jur or members can establish consensus with one another. Largely, the use of these juries in trials is mainly observed as giving the public the power and entrusting them to govern themselves in that the members are just ordinary public with no prior training in law. Most western countries through this have undertaken to use juries in both criminal and civil cases. Does it mean that judges are not entrusted to pass out credible verdicts? Not really. Jurors are just intended to ensure that the trial has the view and acceptance of the ordinary man. ii. Facts and statistics on juries In 2005, about 16,397 tort cases were disposed by jury or bench with the jury hearing 90% of these cases. 80% of all jury trails globally takes place in the US 70% of Japanese citizens reluctant to serve in the jury In 2009, there were six verdicts over $1,000,000 in the US in medical malpractices with largest being at $23.6 million settled after trail (Day, 2010). iii. Objectives of the review This review has several objectives which are; Evaluating the importance of a jury Understanding how a jury operates Recommending the retention of juries in corridors of justice. iv. How jurors operate. Jurors in most cases do a good job in weighing the evidence provided and applying the law in passing out the verdict of an accused (Greene & Bornstein, 2000). Usually, where jurors are considered to have erred, there is evidence that the errors reflect well documented and universal psychological principles that may include heuristic reasoning and attribution errors (Greene & Bornstein, 2011). This may aid in watering down the numerous criticism along with extensive media coverage that portray sensitive cases that have been used to portray the jury as being incompetent and resulting to wrong judgments especially in criminal cases. These errors occurring within the acceptable and recognized psychological principles explain the overall usefulness of these juries in civil and criminal cases and further e xplain that there is an importance of retaining them in the corridors of justice. The lack of fairness in the court system may be attributed to: System not offering required protection to citizens form harm by bringing offenders to the required justice Proceedings in the court system being lengthy Outcome of sentences portraying a disconnection between the crime committed and the senesce handed to offenders (Falconer, 2006) Juries in most cases ensure that judges entrust fairness and preserve the issue of subjective decision making in convicting persons in a court of law (Lea, 2006). The role of jury is to weigh the evidence this is presented in court, apply the law as directed by the trial judge regarding the

Critically discuss with reference to the car industry e.g (Toyota), Essay

Critically discuss with reference to the car industry e.g (Toyota), the Japanese Lean production revolution - Essay Example The meiji restoration transformed the Japanese empire into an industrial world power. With new found pride in their country, and their culture, the Japanese flexed their muscles overseas. After the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), Japan conquered a part of China, some parts of Russia, Taiwan and Korea. These territorial conquests provided Japan with valuable raw material and cheap labor for industries back home. In turn , these occupied territories were fertile markets for Japanese products. The relentless hunger for territorial expansion found expression in Japan's annexing of Manchuria in 1931. In 1937, Japan occupied more territories in China by waging a war on that country for the second time ( Second Sino-Japanese War, 1937-45). All these aggressive expansionist plans brought Japan in direct conflict with the U.S and its allies. Japan joined the Axis powers- Germany and Italy, in 1941.The same year, Japan declared war on the U.S. The war with Japan ended after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. Between 1945 and 1952, post-war Japan was administered by the U.S government .To help Japan stand on its own feet, American financial and technical aid were provided to Japanese business and industry. As part of the technical assistance , the U.S government brought in industrial and managerial experts from the U.S, to train Japanese companies on modern management and production methods. One of the most definitive techniques that influenced Japanese manufacturing, and made Japan the powerhouse that it is today , was the 'Training Within Industry', concept. Training within industry (TWI) service, was a creation of the U.S Department of War, to meet wartime needs. During war, manpower was required by the armed forces to fight the enemy. At the same time, industry which provided key material and equipment to the defense forces, faced a shortage of hands to finish production. Therefore, to optimize the productivity of U.S workforce, a program for training supervisors and workers in indus trial establishments was devised. The training was to be done by experts drawn from universities and businesses. The aim of this program was to improve productivity and quality. The basic concept of the training consisted of the following sequences: a. study and understand the process b. break up the process into its sub-components. c. Educate the supervisor and the worker on the process and its sub-components. d. Train the supervisor and the worker to work efficiently and without wastage. e. Train the worker to evaluate the end result and suggest corrective steps. f. Training the supervisor to deal with workers effectively and fairly. g. Training managements to develop newer and better training programs. The essential elements of the TWI program were similar to the principles laid down by Frederick w.Taylor (1856-1915), father of scientific management. In his book, 'The principles of scientific management (1911), Taylor proposed the following: a. replace rule of thumb work methods with methods based on scientific study of the task. b. Scientifically select , train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves. c. Divide work equally between managers and workers so that